Learning Theories and ICT

In the process of the integration of ICT into teaching, the look and feel of learning environments, the role of teachers, the nature of the learner and what and how they learn are being transformed (NSW Department of Education and Training, 2010). In that, ICT allows us to better serve the diverse learning styles of our students and educate them for a wider range of intelligence. The use of technology as a learning tool can make measurable difference in student achievement, attitudes, and interaction with teachers and other students. Interactive, self-directed learning and higher order thinking can be fostered by technology, and that technology can have the greatest benefit when the environment is conducive to such experiences. With the flexibility and help of the technologies, we can design learning environments in which students can manage and construct their own representations of knowledge in their minds (Koc, 2005). Therefore, in integrating ICT into teaching, we necessarily consider the theories of learning.

Theories of learning are a set of concepts about how people learn and to some extent they identify strategies underlying cognitive processes involved in learning. The info graphic on the right provides a clear categorization of the learning theories you may need to be aware of as an educator. You may be familiar with established learning theories like behaviorism, cognitivism and constructivism and these can all be useful in designing learning activities (Saliba, Rankine, & Cortez, 2013).

Behaviorist and ICT

  Behaviorist learning theory developed in late 19th century. It was the first major theory of learning and represented a radical leap forward in terms of human science. It focuses on that which is observable: how people behave especially how to change or elicit particular behaviors. Behaviorism provided a theory of learning that was empirical, observable and measurable. Behavioral learning theory lent itself to instructional design based on very specific and discrete learning step. And also, very importantly, to the mechanization of this instructional process through new forms of learning technologies such as teaching machines, programmed instruction and computer-assisted instruction (Cooper & Barber, 2012).

Behavioral psychology began at the turn of the twentieth century, primarily with the work of Edward Thorndike (1913) and Ivan Pavlov (1927). Thorndike’s studies of animals led to the first scientific theory of learning, his theory of connectivism. Whereas previous theories had emphasized practice or repetition, Thorndike gave equal consideration to the effects of reward or punishment, success or failure and satisfaction or annoyance on the learner. Thorndike then described law of learning that provides the basic principle that led to his particular technology of instruction. 1) The law of exercise or repetition. The more often a stimulus-induced response is repeated, the longer it will be retained. 2) The laws of effect. The law of effect states the pleasure-pain principle; A response is strengthened if followed by pleasure and weakened if followed by displeasure. 3) The law of readiness. Thorndike assumed that, because of the structure of the nervous system, certain conduction units, in a given situation, are more predisposed to conduct than the others (Saettler, 2004).

The root of instructional design is behaviorism. Moore in Tennyson, Schott, Seel, & Dijkstra (1997) noted that in the early stages, instructional design was defined primarily in behaviorist term. The field was seen as an attempt to develop a single ideal instructional method based in systems theory that would specify teacher characters, classification and evaluation procedures, and means to modify the design system being tested. The goal from this perspective was the development of instructional programs that would enable the majority of students to achieve levels of performance that were predetermined in terms of behaviorally defined objectives.

Cognitivism and ICT

Beginning roughly in the decade 1955-1965, a quiet revolution began to take place in psychological thought and research that promises to have a significant impact on educational technology. What came to be known as “cognitive revolution” represented a radical shift in the prevailing behavioristic perfective of the psychology community. With this theoretical shift, the emphasis changed from procedures for manipulating instructional materials to procedures of facilitating learner processing and interaction. Cognitive psychology now commonly referred to as cognitive science, emphasizes knowing rather than responding, stresses mental structure or organization, and view the individual as active, constructive, and problem solving rather than just a passive recipient of environmental situation (Saettler, 2004).

Similar opinion regarding cognitive learning theory was pronounced by Alessi & Trollip (2001). They underlined that cognitivist learning theory is a counter to behaviorist learning theory. They went on saying that if behaviorism cares about the observable things, cognitivism cares about unobservable realities. Thus conitivism emphasizes on the mind, memory, attitudes, motivation, thinking, reflection, and other internal processes. The most dominant approach in cognitivism is information-processing approach. The information-processing approach tries to describes how information in the world enters through senses, become stored in memory, is retained or forgotten, and is used. It claims that information is stored initially in short-term memory and must be used or organized to become stored more permanently in long term memory.

This view from cognitivism point of view is usually applied in learning using multimedia. The areas of cognitive theory that are most important to multimedia design are those relating to perception and attention, encoding of information, memory, comprehension, active learning, and individual differences. Learning begins with attention to a perception of information in learner’s environment. Perception and attention are neither automatic nor easy. Once the learner attends to and perceives stimuli, cognitive psychologists believe that it must be encoded. Encoding depends on a number of factors, including the format of the information in the environment, the medium of the information and the interrelationships of different information elements. The information encoded was then stored in memory. It is important to note that memory is also affected by motivation and the relevance of the information to the learner. The information we perceive and store in the memory must be interpreted and integrated into our current knowledge of the world. This activity is understood as comprehension. The cognitive approach places and emphasis on active learning because it assumes people learn not only by observing but also by doing. At last, motivation is seen as an essential factor to learning although by defining what it is and what role it plays leads to disagreement (Alessi & Trollip, 2001).

Key theorist in this perspective includes Jerome Bruner and David Ausubel. The early works of constructivist Jean Piaget also significantly contributed to the cognitivist perspective. Each brings a unique perspective to the view of learning as a function of thinking

Constructivist and ICT

Constructivist learning theory provides an alternative epistemological base to the objectivist tradition. Constructivism, like objectivism, holds that there is a real world that we experience. However, the argument is that meaning is imposed on the word by us, rather than existing in the world independently of us. There are many ways to structure the world, and thus there are many meanings or perspectives for any event or concept. Thus there is not a correct meaning that we are striving for (Duffy & Jonassen, 1992).

According to constructivist theory, knowledge is a constructed element resulting from the learning process. Further, knowledge is unique to the individual who construct it. Constructivist differs from cognitivist view in that learning is not seen as just the product of mental processes; it is an entirely unique product for each individual based on the experiences within which those mental processes occurred. The constructivist approach puts its emphasis on the active learning and deemphasizes teaching activities and instructional methods. It entails greater engagement and interaction for students, the teacher is only a guide and enquiry is constructed by the learner (Joseph, 2006). Thus, presentation of information is downplayed whereas learner’s activity is stressed.

Another substantial aspect of constructivist thinking is an emphasis on cooperative and collaborative learning. In the light of constructivism, classrooms are becoming more collaborative communities in which students exchange and share their understandings (NSW Department of Education and Training, 2010). Teachers are not only instructors but also assistants to students’ learning. Teachers need to inspire students and give them chance on exercising their creativity and critical thinking (Wang, 2008). Both cooperative and collaborative learning has several advantages. Interactivity is enhanced and more multisensory; participants play the roles of both learners and teachers; motivation can be enhanced; social skills are fostered; and metacognitive skills may be improved (Alessi & Trollip, 2001).

Constructivism provided a very important vehicle for establishing the communication between learning theory and the instructional design. It is not that constructivism is a new perspective. Rather, that two changes in our society-the volume of information we must manage and the new opportunities provided through technology-have cause us to revisit constructivism. The effect has been indirect. The information age and the technological capabilities have caused us to reconceptualize the learning process and to design new instructional approaches. Both the learning theories and the instructional approaches are consistent with the constructivst epistemology (Duffy & Jonassen, 1992). At present, constructivism is the most influential force in shaping contemporary education.