A Brief History of Instructional Technology

Educational technology as a process, emerged out of the early technological tradition when a kind of knowledge began to systematically apply to instruction, educational technology, despite the uncertainty of the origin of the term, can be traced back to the time when tribal priests systematized bodies of knowledge and early cultures invented pictographs or sign to record and transmit information. In every age, one can find an instructional technique or a set of procedures intended to implement a particular culture. The more advanced the culture, the more complex became the technology of instruction designed to reflect particular ways of thinking, acting, seeking and feeling (Saettler, 2004).

The forerunners of educational technology can be seen in the polychromatic, like bison sketch in the deep recesses of the cave walls by Cro-Magnon artists. These animal paintings, often of astonishing precision and beauty, were Totemistic in the sense that they constituted a symbolic magic for the primitive hunter. The primitive children were taught to observe, imitate, and participate in activities vital to survival of the tribe. Dramatization and demonstration of tribal arts and skills constituted an essential part of instruction. The oral tradition emphasized memory and training and continued to be the primary method of instruction even after the development of a simplified and flexible alphabet led to the spread of reading and writing (Saettler, 2004).

Bringing a new technology into teaching in order to enhance teaching has been a long- standing tradition in education. The history of instructional technology is a story about trial and error. Many efforts have been done and many resources have been invested jus to find the finest and innovative approach into teaching.  Many innovations to teaching come and go. Some were embraced while some other was rejected. Some approaches lasted longer than the others. The acceptance and rejection of certain innovation happens due to social contexts such as different assumptions about learning and development of technology. In the sense that in a certain social context, a certain approach works. But this approach does not function in other social context. Therefore, a new approach then needs to be defined.

Therefore, Borowics (2005) stated that historically the relationship between technology and education is one of promise and despair. In the 1920s, radio was predicted to make education more efficient. By the 1950s, it was believed that instructional television would change pedagogy. And in the late twentieth century, the computer reigned as the tool for distance instruction and instant information. As such, computers would be technological advancement, some said, that would circumvent the problem of overcrowded classrooms by lowering the need for human teachers. During each technology era, government and corporate money was invested in the tool, but in every historical moment, the promise of technology fade to the frustration of lack of teacher education for implementation, unequal access and little or no positive change in pedagogy for curricular integration of the technology.

By 1900, public schools had established organizational and classroom practices that would be familiar to present-day observes. Schools usually were divided into grades and separate classrooms, one to a teacher. Courses of study set the boundaries and expectations for what had to be taught and when. Report cards, homework, textbooks, teacher lectures, and student recitation were standard features of urban classrooms at the turn of the century (Cuban, 1998). According to one researcher as quoted by Cuban, instruction was regimented, mechanical, and mindless. Teachers told students when they should sit, when they should stand, where they should hang their coats, and when they should turn their heads.

As schooling practiced the formal, mechanical and lifeless instruction as described, some critics stated to call for reform in educational instruction. They suggested that the instruction should be built upon the students’ interest. The activities should be designed to equip student with social skills. The teacher should act as coach and adviser rather than driller. John Dewey and William Kilpatrick are among the reformers.

The reformation in educational instruction developed significantly at the invention of motion picture by Thomas Edison. He expressed his enthusiasm and optimism that film would bring a great deal of change into education as he said, “I believe that motion picture is destined to revolutionize our educational system and that in a few years it will supplant largely, if not entirely, the use of textbook”. Another enthusiasm and optimism raised in bringing the world into classroom at the foundation of Ohio School of the Air by Benjamin Darrow. He promoted the use of radio in the class as a magic, expanding the children’s universe. He envisioned that a portable radio receiver would work as a blackboard in the class. Beginning in 1920 when radio division of the US Department of Commerce began licensing commercial and educational stations, classroom broadcasting to enhance instruction spread rapidly in the decades before World War II (Cuban, 1998).