Learning Theories and ICT

In the process of the integration of ICT into teaching, the look and feel of learning environments, the role of teachers, the nature of the learner and what and how they learn are being transformed (NSW Department of Education and Training, 2010). In that, ICT allows us to better serve the diverse learning styles of our students and educate them for a wider range of intelligence. The use of technology as a learning tool can make measurable difference in student achievement, attitudes, and interaction with teachers and other students. Interactive, self-directed learning and higher order thinking can be fostered by technology, and that technology can have the greatest benefit when the environment is conducive to such experiences. With the flexibility and help of the technologies, we can design learning environments in which students can manage and construct their own representations of knowledge in their minds (Koc, 2005). Therefore, in integrating ICT into teaching, we necessarily consider the theories of learning.

Theories of learning are a set of concepts about how people learn and to some extent they identify strategies underlying cognitive processes involved in learning. The info graphic on the right provides a clear categorization of the learning theories you may need to be aware of as an educator. You may be familiar with established learning theories like behaviorism, cognitivism and constructivism and these can all be useful in designing learning activities (Saliba, Rankine, & Cortez, 2013).

Behaviorist and ICT

  Behaviorist learning theory developed in late 19th century. It was the first major theory of learning and represented a radical leap forward in terms of human science. It focuses on that which is observable: how people behave especially how to change or elicit particular behaviors. Behaviorism provided a theory of learning that was empirical, observable and measurable. Behavioral learning theory lent itself to instructional design based on very specific and discrete learning step. And also, very importantly, to the mechanization of this instructional process through new forms of learning technologies such as teaching machines, programmed instruction and computer-assisted instruction (Cooper & Barber, 2012).

Behavioral psychology began at the turn of the twentieth century, primarily with the work of Edward Thorndike (1913) and Ivan Pavlov (1927). Thorndike’s studies of animals led to the first scientific theory of learning, his theory of connectivism. Whereas previous theories had emphasized practice or repetition, Thorndike gave equal consideration to the effects of reward or punishment, success or failure and satisfaction or annoyance on the learner. Thorndike then described law of learning that provides the basic principle that led to his particular technology of instruction. 1) The law of exercise or repetition. The more often a stimulus-induced response is repeated, the longer it will be retained. 2) The laws of effect. The law of effect states the pleasure-pain principle; A response is strengthened if followed by pleasure and weakened if followed by displeasure. 3) The law of readiness. Thorndike assumed that, because of the structure of the nervous system, certain conduction units, in a given situation, are more predisposed to conduct than the others (Saettler, 2004).

The root of instructional design is behaviorism. Moore in Tennyson, Schott, Seel, & Dijkstra (1997) noted that in the early stages, instructional design was defined primarily in behaviorist term. The field was seen as an attempt to develop a single ideal instructional method based in systems theory that would specify teacher characters, classification and evaluation procedures, and means to modify the design system being tested. The goal from this perspective was the development of instructional programs that would enable the majority of students to achieve levels of performance that were predetermined in terms of behaviorally defined objectives.

Cognitivism and ICT

Beginning roughly in the decade 1955-1965, a quiet revolution began to take place in psychological thought and research that promises to have a significant impact on educational technology. What came to be known as “cognitive revolution” represented a radical shift in the prevailing behavioristic perfective of the psychology community. With this theoretical shift, the emphasis changed from procedures for manipulating instructional materials to procedures of facilitating learner processing and interaction. Cognitive psychology now commonly referred to as cognitive science, emphasizes knowing rather than responding, stresses mental structure or organization, and view the individual as active, constructive, and problem solving rather than just a passive recipient of environmental situation (Saettler, 2004).

Similar opinion regarding cognitive learning theory was pronounced by Alessi & Trollip (2001). They underlined that cognitivist learning theory is a counter to behaviorist learning theory. They went on saying that if behaviorism cares about the observable things, cognitivism cares about unobservable realities. Thus conitivism emphasizes on the mind, memory, attitudes, motivation, thinking, reflection, and other internal processes. The most dominant approach in cognitivism is information-processing approach. The information-processing approach tries to describes how information in the world enters through senses, become stored in memory, is retained or forgotten, and is used. It claims that information is stored initially in short-term memory and must be used or organized to become stored more permanently in long term memory.

This view from cognitivism point of view is usually applied in learning using multimedia. The areas of cognitive theory that are most important to multimedia design are those relating to perception and attention, encoding of information, memory, comprehension, active learning, and individual differences. Learning begins with attention to a perception of information in learner’s environment. Perception and attention are neither automatic nor easy. Once the learner attends to and perceives stimuli, cognitive psychologists believe that it must be encoded. Encoding depends on a number of factors, including the format of the information in the environment, the medium of the information and the interrelationships of different information elements. The information encoded was then stored in memory. It is important to note that memory is also affected by motivation and the relevance of the information to the learner. The information we perceive and store in the memory must be interpreted and integrated into our current knowledge of the world. This activity is understood as comprehension. The cognitive approach places and emphasis on active learning because it assumes people learn not only by observing but also by doing. At last, motivation is seen as an essential factor to learning although by defining what it is and what role it plays leads to disagreement (Alessi & Trollip, 2001).

Key theorist in this perspective includes Jerome Bruner and David Ausubel. The early works of constructivist Jean Piaget also significantly contributed to the cognitivist perspective. Each brings a unique perspective to the view of learning as a function of thinking

Constructivist and ICT

Constructivist learning theory provides an alternative epistemological base to the objectivist tradition. Constructivism, like objectivism, holds that there is a real world that we experience. However, the argument is that meaning is imposed on the word by us, rather than existing in the world independently of us. There are many ways to structure the world, and thus there are many meanings or perspectives for any event or concept. Thus there is not a correct meaning that we are striving for (Duffy & Jonassen, 1992).

According to constructivist theory, knowledge is a constructed element resulting from the learning process. Further, knowledge is unique to the individual who construct it. Constructivist differs from cognitivist view in that learning is not seen as just the product of mental processes; it is an entirely unique product for each individual based on the experiences within which those mental processes occurred. The constructivist approach puts its emphasis on the active learning and deemphasizes teaching activities and instructional methods. It entails greater engagement and interaction for students, the teacher is only a guide and enquiry is constructed by the learner (Joseph, 2006). Thus, presentation of information is downplayed whereas learner’s activity is stressed.

Another substantial aspect of constructivist thinking is an emphasis on cooperative and collaborative learning. In the light of constructivism, classrooms are becoming more collaborative communities in which students exchange and share their understandings (NSW Department of Education and Training, 2010). Teachers are not only instructors but also assistants to students’ learning. Teachers need to inspire students and give them chance on exercising their creativity and critical thinking (Wang, 2008). Both cooperative and collaborative learning has several advantages. Interactivity is enhanced and more multisensory; participants play the roles of both learners and teachers; motivation can be enhanced; social skills are fostered; and metacognitive skills may be improved (Alessi & Trollip, 2001).

Constructivism provided a very important vehicle for establishing the communication between learning theory and the instructional design. It is not that constructivism is a new perspective. Rather, that two changes in our society-the volume of information we must manage and the new opportunities provided through technology-have cause us to revisit constructivism. The effect has been indirect. The information age and the technological capabilities have caused us to reconceptualize the learning process and to design new instructional approaches. Both the learning theories and the instructional approaches are consistent with the constructivst epistemology (Duffy & Jonassen, 1992). At present, constructivism is the most influential force in shaping contemporary education.

A Brief History of Instructional Technology

Educational technology as a process, emerged out of the early technological tradition when a kind of knowledge began to systematically apply to instruction, educational technology, despite the uncertainty of the origin of the term, can be traced back to the time when tribal priests systematized bodies of knowledge and early cultures invented pictographs or sign to record and transmit information. In every age, one can find an instructional technique or a set of procedures intended to implement a particular culture. The more advanced the culture, the more complex became the technology of instruction designed to reflect particular ways of thinking, acting, seeking and feeling (Saettler, 2004).

The forerunners of educational technology can be seen in the polychromatic, like bison sketch in the deep recesses of the cave walls by Cro-Magnon artists. These animal paintings, often of astonishing precision and beauty, were Totemistic in the sense that they constituted a symbolic magic for the primitive hunter. The primitive children were taught to observe, imitate, and participate in activities vital to survival of the tribe. Dramatization and demonstration of tribal arts and skills constituted an essential part of instruction. The oral tradition emphasized memory and training and continued to be the primary method of instruction even after the development of a simplified and flexible alphabet led to the spread of reading and writing (Saettler, 2004).

Bringing a new technology into teaching in order to enhance teaching has been a long- standing tradition in education. The history of instructional technology is a story about trial and error. Many efforts have been done and many resources have been invested jus to find the finest and innovative approach into teaching.  Many innovations to teaching come and go. Some were embraced while some other was rejected. Some approaches lasted longer than the others. The acceptance and rejection of certain innovation happens due to social contexts such as different assumptions about learning and development of technology. In the sense that in a certain social context, a certain approach works. But this approach does not function in other social context. Therefore, a new approach then needs to be defined.

Therefore, Borowics (2005) stated that historically the relationship between technology and education is one of promise and despair. In the 1920s, radio was predicted to make education more efficient. By the 1950s, it was believed that instructional television would change pedagogy. And in the late twentieth century, the computer reigned as the tool for distance instruction and instant information. As such, computers would be technological advancement, some said, that would circumvent the problem of overcrowded classrooms by lowering the need for human teachers. During each technology era, government and corporate money was invested in the tool, but in every historical moment, the promise of technology fade to the frustration of lack of teacher education for implementation, unequal access and little or no positive change in pedagogy for curricular integration of the technology.

By 1900, public schools had established organizational and classroom practices that would be familiar to present-day observes. Schools usually were divided into grades and separate classrooms, one to a teacher. Courses of study set the boundaries and expectations for what had to be taught and when. Report cards, homework, textbooks, teacher lectures, and student recitation were standard features of urban classrooms at the turn of the century (Cuban, 1998). According to one researcher as quoted by Cuban, instruction was regimented, mechanical, and mindless. Teachers told students when they should sit, when they should stand, where they should hang their coats, and when they should turn their heads.

As schooling practiced the formal, mechanical and lifeless instruction as described, some critics stated to call for reform in educational instruction. They suggested that the instruction should be built upon the students’ interest. The activities should be designed to equip student with social skills. The teacher should act as coach and adviser rather than driller. John Dewey and William Kilpatrick are among the reformers.

The reformation in educational instruction developed significantly at the invention of motion picture by Thomas Edison. He expressed his enthusiasm and optimism that film would bring a great deal of change into education as he said, “I believe that motion picture is destined to revolutionize our educational system and that in a few years it will supplant largely, if not entirely, the use of textbook”. Another enthusiasm and optimism raised in bringing the world into classroom at the foundation of Ohio School of the Air by Benjamin Darrow. He promoted the use of radio in the class as a magic, expanding the children’s universe. He envisioned that a portable radio receiver would work as a blackboard in the class. Beginning in 1920 when radio division of the US Department of Commerce began licensing commercial and educational stations, classroom broadcasting to enhance instruction spread rapidly in the decades before World War II (Cuban, 1998).

Rationale to the Integration of ICT into Teaching

In our present society, Information and Communications Technology has become an integral and accepted part of everyday life for many people. Technology is increasing in importance in people’s lives. Technology is pervasive and is driving changes on a global level in communications, economics, business enterprise and everyday living. Therefore, education cannot afford to take a back seat to the rest of the societal sectors. On the contrary, it is  job of educators to prepare students to take the lead in future markets (School Board of Broward County Curriculum and Instruction/Student Support Education Technology Services, 2003).

We no longer live in a world in which information is scarce, and the teacher’s role is to hand deliver content to children. Overwhelmed by information from a wealth of sources, students desperately need the skills to create new knowledge, not just consume the old. Problems never come neatly packaged, defined-in-advance, and amenable to the rote application of familiar strategies— except in school. The old certainties of a world defined by four classroom walls and impermeable boundaries have disappeared forever, replaced by global interdependencies and complex systems that require flexibility, responsiveness, and imagination (Jacobsen, Clifford, & Friesen, 2002). In that kind of world, the schooling needed is schooling where the learners   actively constructing instead of just an expert instructing (Goldman-Segall in Jacobsen, Clifford, & Friesen, 2002).

The integration of ICT into teaching benefits both student’s presence and the future. The student’s presence regards to academic achievement in formal school. Student’s future regards to entering the world of job after leaving formal school.

ICT Integrated Teaching Improves Students’ Academic Achievement

The technology changes the behavior of people particularly young learners. Children today are different. They study, work, write, and interact with each other in ways that are very different from the ways that we did growing up. They read blogs rather than newspapers. They often meet each other online before they meet in person. They probably don’t even know what a library card looks like, much less have one; and if they do, they’ve probably never used it. They get their music online—often for free, illegally—rather than buying it in record stores. They’re more likely to send an instant message than to pick up the telephone to arrange a date later in the afternoon. They adopt and pal round with virtual Neopets online instead of pound puppies. And they’re connected to one another by a common culture. Major aspects of their lives—social interactions, friendships, civic activities—are mediated by digital technologies. And they’ve never known any other way of life (Palfrey & Gasser, 2008).

Over the past decade, many articles have appeared in popular and educational journals providing anecdotal evidence of changes that educational technology can make in schools (Baylor & Ritchie, 2002). Technology can help schools achieve such desirable outcomes as improved test scores, reduced failure rates, lower absenteeism, fewer student withdrawals, increased graduation rates, improved job placement rates, and overall improvement in motivation (Duffy & Jonassen, 2005; Coffey, 2012; Kleiman, 2000; Saglam & Sert, 2012).

Hanover Research (2014) as quoting a 2009 report by the State Educational Technology Directors Association (SETDA), found that incorporating technological tools in the classroom led to “positive academic results” and increased technological literacy for students. The study notes that student performance improved across a number of academic content areas, including mathematics, science, reading, and writing.

In her action research study, Souter Melissa (2015) compares the effects of technology-enhanced algebra instruction and traditional algebra instruction in terms of student academic achievement, student motivation, and student attitude towards algebra. She found that integrating technology into the mathematics classroom can increase student achievement, increase student motivation, and foster positive student attitudes. However she also stated that seeing positive results and having positive beliefs concerning using technology do not guarantee immediate technology integration.

ICT Integrated-Teaching Equips Student Entering World of Job of 21st Century

During the past decade there has been an exponential growth in the use of communication and information technology that has brought pervasive impacts on society. The communication and information age has progressed in ways never used before in society, work environments, institutions and people’s lives through the use of mediums such as laptops, iPhones and iPods. The information age has led to an increase in the use of technology ithin all spheres of society, resulting in education institutions mainstreaming programmes which prepare learners to be compatible with the use of technology into their curriculum (Joseph, 2006).

Corporations have become multinational and their workers can be anyplace and work at any time. Fast connections and standardized software link these corporations with workers wherever they are, and some members of this workforce live in parts of the world where salaries are low and benefits are unheard of.  Technology is driving force that created this environment. Technology makes people in remote locations viable employee who are eager to have the jobs. Companies use technology to become lean and efficient. They can track their goods and services from point of origin to delivery and at every step along the way. They know what they need at any moment and can make adjustments to the supply flow in real time using technology from distance. They trim expenses including worker costs (Solomon & Schrum, 2007).

The continuing evolvement of technology in fact continues to impact the evolvement of the jobs. Schrum & Levin (2009) stated that the kinds of work opportunities our students will have in the 21st century will continue to evolve. Some jobs available today will disappear altogether, and other as yet to be imagined jobs will emerge. We know there will continue to be jobs in the service sector because many of these types of jobs cannot be outsourced, but nearly all service-producing jobs already require at least some computer skills.

It is clear, from explanation above, that there is competition in search for job. Only those with skills that fit the recent nature of jobs will win the competition. What does it mean for teaching? It is obvious that educators through their teaching have to equip the young people with new skills which are often referred to as 21st skills. Because the main purpose of education is to prepare the young learners to enter the world of work. In fact, technological-enhanced teaching can equip students with skills essential for work and life in a 21st century global society (The Nellie Mae Education Foundation, 2011).

It's Time for ICT Integration into Teaching

Though some people may be critical and pessimistic about the presence of technology because of negative effects it may causes, it has promising role on the life of society. Though some people may reject the technological determinism, to some degree, it is undeniable that technology does determine and shape our society. It is hardly to deny that computer has changed the nature of job and work. The telephone has led to decline of letter writing, but the internet has changed the nature of interpersonal communication again, leaving written records unlike the telephone (Dusek, 2006).  

Information and Communication Technology (ICT) henceforth, as part of Technology has not only changed and shaped the society but also has transformed the world. It has broken the limitation of time and place. We now live in a world where everyone is connected to each other. By ICT, the social interaction is also affected by this transformation. ICT have permeated nearly every facet of society (Leng, 2008). Business and personal boundaries start to convergence. Besides, face to face communication have transformed to virtual communication. People in certain place in this world can know soon what happened in the other part of the world. Today, through the power of ICT, people can watch the history that it is.

ICT offers a deal of indulgences particularly to young learners. They are familiar with ICT.  Products of ICT such as internet, computers, laptop, cell phone, iPhone, iPad, and other gadgets are at their hands. These artifacts expose to them the varied digital experiences. These products as called social media have significantly influenced their interpersonal relationship. They let not a single day pass without being with them because they offer pleasures and immersion. They even sometime depend so much on them. They enjoyed very much being connected to others through this social media. They can spend some hours just playing online game or just surfing or goggling.

A series of surveys and reports have provided evidence of how people are using technologies, particularly social software and web 2.0, for communication and social networking and for creating and sharing a wide range of digital artifacts (Attwell & Hughes, 2010). Attwell et al. (2010) draw attention to the surveys conducted by Lenhart and Madden in America in 2005 and Ewan McIntosh in UK in 2008. Lenhart and Madden found that 56 % of young people in America were using computers for creative activities, writing and posting to the internet, mixing and constructing multimedia and developing their own content. Twelve to 17-year-olds look to web tools to share what they think and do online. One in five who use the net said that they used other people’s images, audio or text to help make their own creations. McIntosh found that the main use of the net by young people, by far, is for learning: 57 % use the net for homework, saying it provides more information than books; 15 % use it for learning that is ‘not school’; 40 per cent use it to stay in touch with friends; and 9 % for entertainment such as YouTube.

And yet this constant exposure to digital experiences has, in fact, changed how these young learners receive process and use the information. Consequently, the way they learn, interact, and communicate, when and where have also changed (NSW Department of Education and Training, 2010). We should not expect that the students are able to comfortably sit listening to teacher explaining the lesson as we did when we were young learners. Their attention soon gets distracted. Instead of taking notes on the lesson, they will approach us asking to send the teaching material to their email. Besides, they will ask permission to shoot the PPT using their cell phone camera. We should not expect young learners who did not submit the homework would not give reason that seems to us “nonsense”. They would find excuses from, “I have finished it but I forget to bring it” to simple one, “I forget to do it”. All these excuses signal that they do not get engaged into the process of teaching and learning. The way we conduct the teaching material or the material itself does not trigger their curiosity.

Reflecting on the facts above, there is a need for teachers to adopt a new approach in teaching that is able to engage the young learners to be active participants. This new approach is the integration of ICT into teaching.  The change of attitudes of the young learner is not the only reason for the integration of technology into teaching and learning, but also there is abundant anecdotal evidence of the successful use of ICT in the classroom. Technology can help schools achieve such desirable outcomes as improved test scores, reduced failure rates, lower absenteeism, fewer student withdrawals, increased graduation rates, improved job placement rates, and overall improvement in motivation (Kent & McNergney, 2005)

Unfortunately, most of the teachers on the other hand are not easy with ICT. They have poor confidence in using technology as medium of teching content delivery. They are aware of the positive effect on ICT on their teaching (Saglam & Sert, 2012). And yet they are reluctant and not comfortable to use it (Jacobsen, Clifford, & Friesen, 2002). This teacher’s reluctance is caused by many reasons. Understanding and using ICT into teaching and learning require that a certain amount of time be dedicated to the preparation and planning activities. This time is often difficult to come by because teachers are facing many other works to do. Using ICT can require teachers to sacrifice their comfortable style of delivery. Incorporating new style of delivery involves certain risk of losing self-confidence in front of the student who may be better and know more than they do.