In the process of the integration of ICT into
teaching, the look and feel of learning environments, the role of teachers, the
nature of the learner and what and how they learn are being transformed (NSW
Department of Education and Training, 2010). In that, ICT allows us to better
serve the diverse learning styles of our students and educate them for a wider
range of intelligence. The use of technology as a learning tool can make
measurable difference in student achievement, attitudes, and interaction with
teachers and other students. Interactive, self-directed learning and higher
order thinking can be fostered by technology, and that technology can have the
greatest benefit when the environment is conducive to such experiences. With the flexibility and help of the technologies, we
can design learning environments in which students can manage and construct
their own representations of knowledge in their minds (Koc, 2005). Therefore, in integrating ICT into teaching, we
necessarily consider the theories of learning.
Theories of learning are a set of concepts about how
people learn and to some extent they identify strategies underlying cognitive
processes involved in learning. The info graphic on the right provides a clear
categorization of the learning theories you may need to be aware of as an
educator. You may be familiar with established learning theories like
behaviorism, cognitivism and constructivism and these can all be useful in
designing learning activities (Saliba, Rankine, & Cortez, 2013).
Behaviorist and
ICT
Behaviorist learning theory developed in late 19th century. It was the
first major theory of learning and represented a radical leap forward in terms
of human science. It focuses on that which is observable: how people behave
especially how to change or elicit particular behaviors. Behaviorism provided a
theory of learning that was empirical, observable and measurable. Behavioral
learning theory lent itself to instructional design based on very specific and
discrete learning step. And also, very importantly, to the mechanization of
this instructional process through new forms of learning technologies such as
teaching machines, programmed instruction and computer-assisted instruction (Cooper & Barber, 2012).
Behavioral psychology began at the turn of the twentieth century,
primarily with the work of Edward Thorndike (1913) and Ivan Pavlov (1927).
Thorndike’s studies of animals led to the first scientific theory of learning,
his theory of connectivism. Whereas previous theories had emphasized practice
or repetition, Thorndike gave equal consideration to the effects of reward or
punishment, success or failure and satisfaction or annoyance on the learner.
Thorndike then described law of learning that provides the basic principle that
led to his particular technology of instruction. 1) The law of exercise or
repetition. The more often a stimulus-induced response is repeated, the longer
it will be retained. 2) The laws of effect. The law of effect states the pleasure-pain
principle; A response is strengthened if followed by pleasure and weakened if
followed by displeasure. 3) The law of readiness. Thorndike assumed that,
because of the structure of the nervous system, certain conduction units, in a
given situation, are more predisposed to conduct than the others (Saettler, 2004).
The root of instructional design is behaviorism. Moore
in Tennyson, Schott, Seel, & Dijkstra (1997) noted that in the early
stages, instructional design was defined primarily in behaviorist term. The
field was seen as an attempt to develop a single ideal instructional method
based in systems theory that would specify teacher characters, classification
and evaluation procedures, and means to modify the design system being tested.
The goal from this perspective was the development of instructional programs
that would enable the majority of students to achieve levels of performance
that were predetermined in terms of behaviorally defined objectives.
Cognitivism and
ICT
Beginning roughly in the decade 1955-1965, a quiet
revolution began to take place in psychological thought and research that
promises to have a significant impact on educational technology. What came to
be known as “cognitive revolution” represented a radical shift in the
prevailing behavioristic perfective of the psychology community. With this
theoretical shift, the emphasis changed from procedures for manipulating
instructional materials to procedures of facilitating learner processing and
interaction. Cognitive psychology now commonly referred to as cognitive
science, emphasizes knowing rather than responding, stresses mental structure
or organization, and view the individual as active, constructive, and problem
solving rather than just a passive recipient of environmental situation
(Saettler, 2004).
Similar opinion regarding cognitive learning theory was pronounced by Alessi & Trollip (2001). They
underlined that cognitivist learning theory is a counter to behaviorist
learning theory. They went on saying that if behaviorism cares about the
observable things, cognitivism cares about unobservable realities. Thus
conitivism emphasizes on the mind, memory, attitudes, motivation, thinking,
reflection, and other internal processes. The most dominant approach in
cognitivism is information-processing approach. The information-processing
approach tries to describes how information in the world enters through senses,
become stored in memory, is retained or forgotten, and is used. It claims that
information is stored initially in short-term memory and must be used or
organized to become stored more permanently in long term memory.
This view from cognitivism point of view is usually
applied in learning using multimedia. The areas of cognitive theory that are
most important to multimedia design are those relating to perception and
attention, encoding of information, memory, comprehension, active learning, and
individual differences. Learning begins with attention to a perception of
information in learner’s environment. Perception and attention are neither
automatic nor easy. Once the learner attends to and perceives stimuli,
cognitive psychologists believe that it must be encoded. Encoding depends on a
number of factors, including the format of the information in the environment,
the medium of the information and the interrelationships of different
information elements. The information encoded was then stored in memory. It is
important to note that memory is also affected by motivation and the relevance
of the information to the learner. The information we perceive and store in the
memory must be interpreted and integrated into our current knowledge of the
world. This activity is understood as comprehension. The cognitive approach
places and emphasis on active learning because it assumes people learn not only
by observing but also by doing. At last, motivation is seen as an essential
factor to learning although by defining what it is and what role it plays leads
to disagreement (Alessi &
Trollip, 2001).
Key theorist in this perspective includes Jerome
Bruner and David Ausubel. The early works of constructivist Jean Piaget also
significantly contributed to the cognitivist perspective. Each brings a unique
perspective to the view of learning as a function of thinking
Constructivist
and ICT
Constructivist learning theory provides an alternative epistemological
base to the objectivist tradition. Constructivism, like objectivism, holds that
there is a real world that we experience. However, the argument is that meaning
is imposed on the word by us, rather than existing in the world independently
of us. There are many ways to structure the world, and thus there are many
meanings or perspectives for any event or concept. Thus there is not a correct
meaning that we are striving for (Duffy
& Jonassen, 1992).
According to constructivist theory, knowledge is a
constructed element resulting from the learning process. Further, knowledge is
unique to the individual who construct it. Constructivist differs from
cognitivist view in that learning is not seen as just the product of mental
processes; it is an entirely unique product for each individual based on the
experiences within which those mental processes occurred. The constructivist
approach puts its emphasis on the active learning and deemphasizes teaching
activities and instructional methods. It entails greater engagement and
interaction for students, the teacher is only a guide and enquiry is
constructed by the learner (Joseph, 2006). Thus, presentation of information is
downplayed whereas learner’s activity is stressed.
Another substantial aspect of constructivist thinking
is an emphasis on cooperative and collaborative learning. In the light of
constructivism, classrooms are becoming more collaborative communities in which
students exchange and share their understandings (NSW Department of Education
and Training, 2010). Teachers are not only instructors but also assistants to
students’ learning. Teachers need to inspire students and give them chance on
exercising their creativity and critical thinking (Wang, 2008). Both
cooperative and collaborative learning has several advantages. Interactivity is
enhanced and more multisensory; participants play the roles of both learners
and teachers; motivation can be enhanced; social skills are fostered; and
metacognitive skills may be improved (Alessi & Trollip, 2001).
Constructivism provided a very important vehicle for
establishing the communication between learning theory and the instructional
design. It is not that constructivism is a new perspective. Rather, that two
changes in our society-the volume of information we must manage and the new
opportunities provided through technology-have cause us to revisit
constructivism. The effect has been indirect. The information age and the
technological capabilities have caused us to reconceptualize the learning
process and to design new instructional approaches. Both the learning theories
and the instructional approaches are consistent with the constructivst
epistemology (Duffy & Jonassen, 1992). At present, constructivism is the
most influential force in shaping contemporary education.
